Indian History - Important events

History of India . An overview : The people of India have had a continuous civilization since 2500 B.C., when the inhabitants of the Indus River valley developed an urban culture based on commerce and sustained by agricultural trade. This civilization declined around 1500 B.C., probably due to ecological changes.

During the second millennium B.C., pastoral, Aryan-speaking tribes migrated from the northwest into the subcontinent. As they settled in the middle Ganges River valley, they adapted to antecedent cultures.

The political map of ancient and medieval India was made up of myriad kingdoms with fluctuating boundaries. In the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., northern India was unified under the Gupta Dynasty. During this period, known as India's Golden Age, Hindu culture and political administration reached new heights.

Islam spread across the Indian subcontinent over a period of 500 years. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established sultanates in Delhi. In the early 16th century, descendants of Genghis Khan swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal (Mogul) Dynasty, which lasted for 200 years. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, southern India was dominated by Hindu Chola and Vijayanagar Dynasties. During this time, the two systems--the prevailing Hindu and Muslim--mingled, leaving lasting cultural influences on each other.

The first British outpost in South Asia was established in 1619 at Surat on the northwestern coast. Later in the century, the East India Company opened permanent trading stations at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, each under the protection of native rulers.


The British expanded their influence from these footholds until, by the 1850s, they controlled most of present-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. In 1857, a rebellion in north India led by mutinous Indian soldiers caused the British Parliament to transfer all political power from the East India Company to the Crown. Great Britain began administering most of India directly while controlling the rest through treaties with local rulers.

In the late 1800s, the first steps were taken toward self-government in British India with the appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils. Beginning in 1920, Indian leader Mohandas K. Gandhi transformed the Indian National Congress political party into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The party used both parliamentary and nonviolent resistance and non-cooperation to achieve independence.


On August 15, 1947, India became a dominion within the Commonwealth, with Jawaharlal Nehru as Prime Minister. Enmity between Hindus and Muslims led the British to partition British India, creating East and West Pakistan, where there were Muslim majorities. India became a republic within the Commonwealth after promulgating its constitution on January 26, 1950.

After independence, the Congress Party, the party of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, ruled India under the influence first of Nehru and then his daughter and grandson, with the exception of two brief periods in the 1970s and 1980s.

Prime Minister Nehru governed India until his death in 1964. He was succeeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri, who also died in office. In 1966, power passed to Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977. In 1975, beset with deepening political and economic problems, Mrs. Gandhi declared a state of emergency and suspended many civil liberties. Seeking a mandate at the polls for her policies, she called for elections in 1977, only to be defeated by Moraji Desai, who headed the Janata Party, an amalgam of five opposition parties.

In 1979, Desai's Government crumbled. Charan Singh formed an interim government, which was followed by Mrs. Gandhi's return to power in January 1980. On October 31, 1984, Mrs. Gandhi was assassinated, and her son, Rajiv, was chosen by the Congress (I)--for "Indira"--Party to take her place. His government was brought down in 1989 by allegations of corruption and was followed by V.P. Singh and then Chandra Shekhar.

In the 1989 elections, although Rajiv Gandhi and Congress won more seats in the 1989 elections than any other single party, he was unable to form a government with a clear majority. The Janata Dal, a union of opposition parties, was able to form a government with the help of the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on the right and the communists on the left. This loose coalition collapsed in November 1990, and the government was controlled for a short period by a breakaway Janata Dal group supported by Congress (I), with Chandra Shekhar as Prime Minister. That alliance also collapsed, resulting in national elections in June 1991.

On May 27, 1991, while campaigning in Tamil Nadu on behalf of Congress (I), Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated, apparently by Tamil extremists from Sri Lanka. In the elections, Congress (I) won 213 parliamentary seats and put together a coalition, returning to power under the leadership of P.V. Narasimha Rao. This Congress-led government, which served a full 5-year term, initiated a gradual process of economic liberalization and reform, which has opened the Indian economy to global trade and investment. India's domestic politics also took new shape, as traditional alignments by caste, creed, and ethnicity gave way to a plethora of small, regionally based political parties.



The final months of the Rao-led government in the spring of 1996 were marred by several major political corruption scandals, which contributed to the worst electoral performance by the Congress Party in its history. The Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged from the May 1996 national elections as the single-largest party in the Lok Sabha but without enough strength to prove a majority on the floor of that Parliament. Under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the BJP coalition lasted in power 13 days. With all political parties wishing to avoid another round of elections, a 14-party coalition led by the Janata Dal emerged to form a government known as the United Front, under the former Chief Minister of Karnataka, H.D. Deve Gowda. His government lasted less than a year, as the leader of the Congress Party withdrew his support in March 1997. Inder Kumar Gujral replaced Deve Gowda as the consensus choice for Prime Minister of a 16-party United Front coalition.

In November 1997, the Congress Party in India again withdrew support for the United Front. New elections in February 1998 brought the BJP the largest number of seats in Parliament--182--but fell far short of a majority. On March 20, 1998, the President inaugurated a BJP-led coalition government with Vajpayee again serving as Prime Minister. On May 11 and 13, 1998, this government conducted a series of underground nuclear tests forcing U.S. President Clinton to impose economic sanctions on India pursuant to the 1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act.

In April 1999, the BJP-led coalition government fell apart, leading to fresh elections in September. The National Democratic Alliance-a new coalition led by the BJP-gained a majority to form the government with Vajpayee as Prime Minister in October 1999.

Port Forwarding of Nokia Siemens Residential Router 1600 Bsnl

I have found many people searching around for a tutorial for Nokia Siemens Residential wlan router –1600 ( i. e. Sl2- 141 type B ) port forwarding. I also had some problem in past time that’s why i think to write down a tutorial. So here it is step by step tutorial for port forwarding.
What I am using: 
Nokia Siemens Residential Wlan Router-1600 ( or SL2-141 Type -B)
OS => Windows 7 Ultimate 32 bit
Browser => Firefox 3.5
Utorrent 1.8.5
Step 1:-
First of all Connect your modem to your lan card and open your browser. In address bar enterhttp://192.168.1.1/main.html like the picture below.

It is important to use exact url as in picture. It will ask you to enter your password and username like picture below

Default User Name and Password is ‘ admin ’ enter it and click on ok Button.
Step 2:-
After clicking on ok button you will be welcomed by your router configuration advanced menu like Below

Now click on Advance Setup and you will have screen something like below

Step 3:-
Now click on NAT and after that DMZ HOST now you have screen like below

Now enter Desired IP Address in DMZ Host IP Address ( Enter IP Address only of your computer on which you want port forwarding . You can check it in your tcp/IP Setting) and click onSave/Apply button. Wait for 1or 2 minute and Switch off and switch on your Router.
If every thing gone fine you will see a green light ( Please wait at least 2 min )of joy in your torrent client.

If you want to confirm in another way go to option menu and select speed guide or click on green light.

click on Test if port is forwarded properly you will get something like this in your browser window

It is end of mine tutorial hope you visitors like it please comment whatever you think.
If you want to contact me or want to suggest any new tutorial for me to write down, please gotoTuffclassified.com.com

5 Shows You Must See On The Discovery Channel

By Sheila Dollarsby

Are you tired of all the trash on television? If so, then why not switch to the Discovery Channel America's #1 television station for quality informative information. Since its inception the Discovery Channel's programming, has been widely imitated but never duplicated. It seems that when you are successful, everyone wants to model your success.

This season's most watched new show is The Colony. Similar to what you may have seen in the CBS show LOST, this particular television program focuses on the aftermath of an outbreak of a deadly virus where only ten people of various races and religions survive. After surviving, they hunker down in a large warehouse where they find all the basics of life including a limited supply of food items.

The really neat thing about the show is that it is very realistic. The characters are forced to handle real world scenarios like the time when they were attacked by a band of thugs who were intently focused on gaining access to the warehouse to steal their supplies. If you are not careful, like a black hole in space, you'll quickly be sucked in to this intriguing show. The show is incredibly informative because you could learn a lot by simply watching the cast make clean water generate electricity and fight for their lives.

If you are someone who can't get enough of unscripted reality television, then you will love Storm Chasers. With what begin in 2007 as a unique look deep inside some of the deadliest storms on earth, has now turned into a cult phenomenon. Watch as these brave but sometimes foolish scientists head directly into the eye of hurricanes or drive right into the path of a raging tornado. There is no room for the weak willed on this journey. You'll travel with them in their armored vehicles as they tempt fate and death at every turn.

Are you an Leonardo DaVinci lover? If so then you will absolutely have to see the next episode of Doing DaVinci. This show is really fun because many so called experts of today's art and architectural world attempt to remake many of his inventions. The best part is that there is no modern technology available for their use. That's right; participants are forced to utilize only materials and tools that would have been available during DaVinci's time. If you have been watching, you've witnessed the building of some phenomenal items like chariots, tanks and ladders.

If you are into horror flicks then you'll absolutely flip out when you see the new hit Verminators. As a featured show on the Discovery Channel, Verminators takes you deep into the underground world of pest control. Watch as experienced exterminators tackle some of the most interesting and bizarre bugs and animals. Don't be surprised if you see bats, mice, snakes and countless other vermin.

For those of you who are fans of Planet Earth, get ready to dig your teeth into another Discovery Channel masterpiece, Nature's Most Amazing Events. If you are ready to witness the most amazing natural and animal events that you've never seen then hold on to your hats. Never before will you be so close to the action. Watch as Humpback Whales migrate through the islands of Hawaii. Then sit stunned as you see the great salmon run or the overflowing of the Okavango Delta in Africa.

About the Author:

Sheila Dollarsby loves watching the Discovery Channel, but she also like shopping at the Discovery Channel Store. Not only can she purchase the dvds of her favorite shows from the Discovery Channel Store, but she can also find really cool gifts for her kids and other family members.

Origin of the Earth's core and first atmosphere

Origin of the Earth's core and first atmosphere
See also: Planetary differentiation

The Proto-Earth grew by accretion, until the inner part of the protoplanet was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals. Such liquid metals, with now higher densities, began to sink to the Earth's center of mass. This so called iron catastrophe resulted in the separation of a primitive mantle and a (metallic) core only 10 million years after the Earth began to form, producing the layered structure of Earth and setting up the formation of Earth's magnetic field.

During the accretion of material to the protoplanet, a cloud of gaseous silica must have surrounded the Earth, to condense afterwards as solid rocks on the surface. What was left surrounding the planet was an early atmosphere of light (atmophile) elements from the solar nebula, mostly hydrogen and helium, but the solar wind and Earth's heat would have driven off this atmosphere.

This changed when Earth accreted to about 40% its present radius, and gravitational attraction retained an atmosphere which included water.
[edit]
The giant impact hypothesis
Main articles: Origin and evolution of the Moon and Giant impact hypothesis

The Earth's relatively large natural satellite, the Moon, is unique.[nb 2] During the Apollo program, rocks from the Moon's surface were brought to Earth. Radiometric dating of these rocks has shown the Moon to be 4527 ± 10 million years old,[17] about 30 to 55 million years younger than other bodies in the solar system.[18] (New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48±0.02 Ga, or 70–110 Ma after the start of the Solar System.[5]) Another notable feature is the relatively low density of the Moon, which must mean it does not have a large metallic core, like all other terrestrial bodies in the solar system. The Moon has a bulk composition closely resembling the Earth's mantle and crust together, without the Earth's core. This has led to the giant impact hypothesis, the idea that the Moon was formed during a giant impact of the proto-Earth with another protoplanet by accretion of the material blown off the mantles of the proto-Earth and impactor.[19][8]

The impactor, sometimes named Theia, is thought to have been a little smaller than the current planet Mars. It could have formed by accretion of matter about 150 million kilometres from the Sun and Earth, at their fourth or fifth Lagrangian point. Its orbit may have been stable at first, but destabilized as Theia's mass increased due to the accretion of matter. Theia oscillated in larger and larger orbits around the Lagrangian point until it finally collided with Earth about 4.533 Ga.[7][nb 1] Models reveal that when an impactor this size struck the proto-Earth at a low angle and relatively low speed (8–20 km/sec), much material from the mantles and crusts of the proto-Earth and the impactor was ejected into space, where much of it stayed in orbit around the Earth. This material would eventually form the Moon. However, the metallic cores of the impactor would have sunk through the Earth's mantle to fuse with the Earth's core, depleting the Moon of metallic material.[20] The giant impact hypothesis thus explains the Moon's abnormal composition.[21] The ejecta in orbit around the Earth could have condensed into a single body within a couple of weeks. Under the influence of its own gravity, the ejected material became a more spherical body: the Moon.[22]

The radiometric ages show the Earth existed already for at least 10 million years before the impact, enough time to allow for differentiation of the Earth's primitive mantle and core. Then, when the impact occurred, only material from the mantle was ejected, leaving the Earth's core of heavy siderophile elements untouched.

The impact had some important consequences for the young Earth. It released an enormous amount of energy, causing both the Earth and Moon to be completely molten. Immediately after the impact, the Earth's mantle was vigorously convecting, the surface was a large magma ocean. The planet's first atmosphere must have been completely blown away by the impact.[23] The impact is also thought to have changed Earth’s axis to produce the large 23.5° axial tilt that is responsible for Earth’s seasons (a simple, ideal model of the planets’ origins would have axial tilts of 0° with no recognizable seasons). It may also have sped up Earth’s rotation.

Palestinians more skeptical about Mideast talks

RAMALLAH, West Bank – Palestinian officials said Saturday that Israel's dismissive response to President Barack Obama's new Mideast peace proposal proves there's not enough common ground for meaningful negotiations.

Despite such skepticism, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas seemed in no hurry to announce his next move. He instructed his advisers to avoid public comment, presumably to keep attention focused on Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu who appears to be set on a collision course with Obama.

The U.S. president said this week that Israeli-Palestinian border talks should be based on Israel's pre-1967 war lines, with mutually agreed land swaps, adopting a formula long sought by the Palestinians, but rejected by Netanyahu.

In finally presenting his own vision of the rough outlines of a peace deal, Obama stepped deeper into the Mideast fray after more than two years on the sidelines. However, he did not present a plan of action with his ideas, and the responses from both sides indicated that chances for renewing talks, largely on hold since 2008, are increasingly remote.

Obama and Netanyahu are to address the pro-Israel lobbying group AIPAC on Sunday and Monday, respectively. The Israeli leader also plans to address Congress on Tuesday. A White House spokesman has said Obama will speak of the strong bond between Israel and the U.S., but not deliver a policy speech.

The strain in the relationship became apparent on Friday, after a two-hour White House meeting between Obama and Netanyahu. In front of TV cameras, Netanyahu at times seemed to lecture Obama, and suggested the president's ideas are unrealistic, saying that "peace based on illusions" will quickly fail.

Among Abbas' senior aides, meanwhile, there seemed to be some disagreement over tactics.

Chief negotiator Saeb Erekat said it's best for the Palestinians to keep quiet and let Netanyahu do the talking.

"We accept two states based on the 1967 lines, with agreed swaps ... and we want Mr. Netanyahu to say this sentence," Erekat said. "We hope to hear it in front of Congress, at AIPAC, in Hebrew, in Arabic, in Chinese, in any language."

Erekat said it's premature to talk about what to do should Obama fail to renew peace talks. Abbas' aides have been preparing to bypass negotiations, with a bid in September to win U.N. recognition of a state in the West Bank, Gaza and east Jerusalem, the territories Israel captured in the 1967 Mideast War.

Another senior aide, Nabil Shaath, said he expects Abbas to renew his support for the U.N. option in coming days — unless Obama somehow persuades Netanyahu to change course and accept the 1967 borders as a baseline.

"It's very clear that Obama's attempt (to restart talks) was shot down by Mr. Netanyahu," Shaath said Saturday, adding that unless there's an Israeli reversal, "we will continue our work for September and will continue to seek countries that recognize Palestine."

It's unlikely Netanyahu will change course, since he answers to a right-wing coalition at home and told Obama on Friday that the 1967 borders would be "indefensible." Netanyahu did not address the idea of swaps, which would presumably enable Israel to annex parts of the West Bank with large Jewish settlements, provided it compensates the Palestinians with the same amount of Israeli land.

Netanyahu has repeatedly said he is willing to resume negotiations, but Abbas has said he won't do so as long as Israel keeps building homes for Jews in the West Bank and east Jerusalem.

Since Obama's speech on Thursday, Abbas has been consulting with Arab foreign ministers on the phone and headed to Jordan on Saturday for talks with King Abdullah II. He also is to meet with leaders of the PLO and his Fatah movement and has asked for a meeting of Arab League foreign ministers later this month, Erekat said.

Obama has warned the Palestinians that a U.N. bid would not get them a state.

However, Abbas might not be able to abort the move because of mounting expectations at home, said Hanan Ashrawi, a member of the PLO Executive Committee. "I personally predict public opinion is bent on going to the U.N.," Ashrawi said. "Netanyahu managed to undermine every single attempt at launching serious negotiations."

There seems to be some confusion over what the U.N. General Assembly could offer the Palestinians if a recognition bid is vetoed by the U.S. in the Security Council. An internal Palestinian document said the Palestinians should then ask the General Assembly to establish a U.N. trusteeship in the Israeli-occupied territories, while Shaath suggested the Palestinians could at best win an upgraded observer status.

In Israel, senior officials played down the potential damage to Israeli-U.S. relations following the clash over Obama's peace vision.

"I think that when we hear all the details, it will be clear that the meeting was less dramatic than it was made out to be," Defense Minister Ehud Barak, a centrist, told Israel TV's Channel 2. "I don't think the president said you have to go back to the '67 lines. He said you need to talk about borders based on the '67 lines with the appropriate swaps."

Still, Netanyahu's blunt rejection of much of Obama's vision seemed to further isolate Israel.

The Quartet of Mideast negotiators comprising the U.S., the United Nations, the European Union and Russia said it supports the president's parameters and is in "full agreement about the urgent need" to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
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